Grammatical Classes and Their Classifications
Grammatical classes are categories that group words with similar grammatical properties. Each class has specific characteristics regarding form (morphology) and function in sentences (syntax). Understanding these categories is essential for the study of grammar, as it allows us to identify how words relate to each other and contribute to the construction of coherent statements.
Portuguese grammar classifies words into ten grammatical classes: noun, adjective, article, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. This categorization follows morphosemantic criteria, considering both the structure of words and their meaning in the linguistic context.
Below, we will present a description of each grammatical class, accompanied by practical examples.
1. Noun
A noun is the grammatical class that names beings, objects, places, feelings, ideas, and phenomena, whether concrete or abstract. This class can vary in gender (masculine and feminine), number (singular and plural), and degree (diminutive and augmentative).
Classification of Nouns:
- Abstract: designate actions, feelings, states, or qualities that depend on another being to manifest.Examples: intelligence, hope, freedom, longing.
- Collective: indicate, in the singular, a group of beings or objects of the same species.Examples: library (collection of books), herd (group of cattle), orchestra (group of musicians).
- Common: designate generically beings of the same species.Examples: mountain, flower, table.
- Concrete: refer to beings that exist on their own, whether real or imaginary.Examples: sun, telephone, mermaid, giant.
- Proper: identify specific beings within a species and are written with an initial capital letter.Examples: Rio de Janeiro, Peter, Europe.
Usage Examples:
Abstract: Hope kept the group united in difficult times.
Collective: The herd crossed the river in search of pasture.
Common: We climbed the highest mountain in the region.
Concrete: The sun illuminates the beach at dawn.
Proper: Peter visited Rio de Janeiro during vacation.
2. Article
An article is a word that accompanies the noun, indicating whether it is being used in a definite or indefinite manner. Additionally, the article indicates the gender (masculine or feminine) and number (singular or plural) of the noun it accompanies.
Classification of Articles:
- Definite Articles: Definite articles determine a specific noun that is already known to the interlocutor.the (o, a, os, as)The books are on the table.
- Indefinite Articles: Indefinite articles refer to nouns in a generic or unspecified way.a, an, some
Usage Examples:
Indefinite Article: A star shone brightly in the sky.
Definite Article: The books are on the table.
3. Adjective
An adjective is the grammatical class that characterizes or qualifies the noun, indicating its qualities, states, or conditions. Its function is to add information to the noun, detailing its characteristics. Adjectives agree with the noun in gender (masculine or feminine) and number (singular or plural), and can vary in degree (comparative and superlative).
Classifications of Adjectives:
- Simple: have only one root (a single lexical base).Examples: happy, fast, sweet, clear.
- Compound: formed by more than one root.Examples: dark-blue, socioeconomic, dark-yellow, African-American.
- Primitive: do not derive from other words and serve as a base to form other adjectives.Examples: strong, pure, beautiful.
- Derived: originate from other words, usually nouns or verbs.Examples: strengthened (from "strong"), sunny (from "sun"), flowery (from "flower").
- Demonyms: indicate origin or nationality, referring to continent, country, region, state, or city.Examples: Asian, Pernambucan, Lisbonian, Canadian.
Usage Examples:
Simple: The child was happy with the new toy.
Compound: She painted the bedroom wall light-blue.
Primitive: The view from the mountaintop is beautiful.
Derived: He felt strengthened after the intense training.
Demonyms: The São Paulo traffic is intense during the week.
4. Numeral
A numeral is the grammatical class that indicates quantity, order, fraction, multiplication, or grouping of elements. Numerals express numerical values or the position of a noun in a sequence.
Classifications of Numerals:
- Cardinals: indicate an exact quantity of beings or objects.Examples: one, two, three, four, five.
- Ordinals: express the position or order of elements in a sequence.Examples: first, second, third, fourth, fifth.
- Fractional: indicate the division of a whole into equal parts.Examples: half, third, fourth, fifth.
- Multiplicative: express the multiplication or proportional increase of a quantity.Examples: double, triple, quadruple, quintuple.
- Collective: represent an exact set of elements.Examples: dozen (12 units), hundred (100 units), thousand (1000 units).
Usage Examples:
Cardinals: The product costs one hundred dollars.
Ordinals: Lives on the second avenue, number 30.
Fractional: Use half a cup of sugar in the recipe.
5. Pronoun
A pronoun is the word class that substitutes or accompanies the noun, indicating its position in relation to the persons of speech (first, second, or third person). Pronouns vary according to their function in the sentence and are classified into different types. They can act as substantive pronouns (replacing the noun) or adjective pronouns (accompanying and characterizing the noun).
Classifications of Pronouns:
- Subject: represent the subject of the sentence.Examples: I, you, he, she, we, you, they.
- Unstressed Object: function as verb complements without preposition.Examples: me, you, him, her, it, us, them.
- Stressed Object: function as verb complements with preposition.Examples: me, you, him, her, us, them.
- Possessive: indicate possession or belonging in relation to the persons of speech.Examples: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs.
- Demonstrative: locate beings in time, space, or within the discourse, in relation to grammatical persons.Examples: this, that, these, those, it.
- Indefinite: refer to beings in a vague or indeterminate way.Variable: some, none, all, other, many, few, certain, so many, how many, any.Invariable: someone, nobody, everything, nothing, each, something.
- Relative: replace a previously expressed term and serve to connect subordinate clauses.Examples: that, who, whom, which, whose, where.
- Interrogative: used to formulate direct or indirect questions.Examples: what, who, which, how many, how much.
- Forms of Address: express formality and respect to the interlocutor. Although they refer to the second person, agreement is made in the third person.Examples: you, sir, madam, your excellency, your honor, your majesty.
Usage Examples:
Subject Pronoun: I don't agree with the decision.
Unstressed Object: The doctor called me into the room.
Stressed Object: Brought the document for you.
Possessive Pronoun: Your phone is ringing.
Demonstrative Pronoun: That is not what I asked for.
Indefinite Pronoun: Everything is in order now.
Relative Pronoun: This is the reason for which I fought.
Interrogative Pronoun: Who left this package here?
Form of Address: Your Holiness will be received shortly.
6. Verb
A verb is the grammatical class that expresses actions, states, natural phenomena, or occurrences. It is a flexible word that varies in person (first, second, third), number (singular, plural), tense (present, past, future), mood (indicative, subjunctive, imperative), and voice (active, passive, reflexive).
Functions of the Verb:• Action: Indicates an activity performed by the subject.• State or Change of State: Expresses a condition or change in the subject's condition.• Natural Phenomenon: Refers to natural events.• Fact or Occurrence: Indicates that something happened or exists.
- Direct Transitive Verb: Requires a direct object to complete its meaning, without needing a preposition. The direct object receives the verb's action directly.Example: "They bought new equipment."The verb bought needs the direct object new equipment for the sentence to have complete meaning.
- Indirect Transitive Verb: Requires an indirect object to complete its meaning, always accompanied by a preposition. The indirect object receives the verb's action indirectly, mediated by a preposition.Example: "She trusts in her friends."The verb trusts needs the indirect object in her friends, preceded by the preposition in, to complete its meaning.
- Direct and Indirect Transitive Verb: Requires two complements: a direct object (without preposition) and an indirect object (with preposition). Both are necessary for the complete meaning of the action.Example: "We informed the news to those interested."The verb informed requires the direct object the news and the indirect object to those interested (with the preposition to).
- Intransitive Verb: Does not require a complement to have complete meaning. The action or state expressed by the verb is sufficient on its own.Example: "The flowers bloomed."The verb bloomed does not need any complement for the sentence to make sense.
7. Adverb
An adverb is an invariable word that modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb, or even an entire sentence. It expresses circumstances such as time, manner, place, intensity, affirmation, negation, and doubt, among others.
Classifications of Adverbs:
- Manner: Indicate how the action is performed.Examples: carefully, joyfully, silently, well, badly.
- Time: Indicate when the action occurs.Examples: today, early, late, now, before, after, immediately, never.
- Place: Indicate where the action occurs.Examples: here, there, yonder, above, below, inside, outside, ahead, behind.
- Intensity: Express the degree or intensity of something.Examples: very, little, quite, too much, totally, almost.
- Affirmation: Confirm or reinforce the truthfulness of information.Examples: yes, certainly, really, indeed, undoubtedly.
- Negation: Negate or contradict information.Examples: no, never, not at all, by no means.