The colonization of Brazil, initiated in the 16th century, was characterized by the exploitation of natural resources, such as brazilwood, and the implementation of administrative structures like hereditary captaincies. The history of colonial Brazil is divided into three main periods: the recognition and possession of the new land (1500–1549), the consolidation of colonization with the creation of the general government (1549–late 18th century), and the transformations that culminated in Independence in 1822. During these periods, the relationship between the metropolis and the colony was governed by mercantilist conceptions, in which the colonies should contribute to the self-sufficiency of the metropolis, serving as reserved areas for exclusive economic exploitation.
The colonial system established norms and practices to ward off competitors from exploiting the colonies, centered on the metropolitan "exclusive"—the exclusivity of the colony's foreign trade in favor of the metropolis. This meant preventing foreign ships from transporting goods from the colony or products not produced in the metropolis from reaching the colony in foreign ships. The mercantilist economic policy aimed to accumulate precious metals and strengthen the state through extensive intervention in the economy, promoting the export of manufactured goods and rigidly controlling colonial trade. These practices led to the crisis of the colonial system at the end of the 18th century, contributing to independence movements.
— AMOEDO, Rodolfo. Bandeirante [Borba Gato], 1929.
1. Recognition and Possession (1500–1549)
The first attempts to explore the Brazilian coast were based on the factory system, already used on the African coast. In 1505, the Portuguese Crown took over direct exploitation. Between 1500 and 1535, the extraction of brazilwood occurred mainly through exchanges with the indigenous people, integrating into the traditional practices of native peoples. They provided the wood in exchange for objects of little value to the Portuguese—a system known as barter.
A crucial feature of this system was granting the donataries the right to award sesmarias—land extensions given to settlers with the obligation to cultivate them and pay tributes to the Crown. The enterprise, however, faced obstacles: lack of financial resources, internal disagreements, administrative inexperience, and conflicts with indigenous populations. Only the captaincies of Pernambuco and São Vicente prospered, thanks to sugar production and more conciliatory relations with the indigenous people. Faced with these difficulties, the Portuguese Crown gradually regained control of the captaincies, transforming them into state administrative units. Between 1752 and 1754, under the leadership of the Marquis of Pombal, the process of transitioning the captaincies from private to public domain was practically completed, marking the end of this system as initially conceived.
2. Consolidation of Colonization and Creation of the General Government (1549–late 18th century)
2.1 General Government
The institution of the General Government in Brazil by Dom João III, in 1549, arose in response to internal and external challenges faced by the Portuguese Crown. Internally, the failure of the hereditary captaincies highlighted the need for a more efficient and centralized administration to ensure the possession and defense of the territory. Externally, Portugal faced crises in Oriental trade, military defeats in Morocco, and observed Spanish success in exploiting precious metals in the Americas. The General Government, therefore, represented a strategic effort to consolidate colonization, strengthen the colonial economy, and ensure Portuguese sovereignty in the face of ambitions from other European powers.
Tomé de Sousa, the first governor-general, arrived in Brazil with precise instructions, known as the Regimento de Tomé de Sousa. This document outlined objectives such as founding a capital, organizing the administration, and promoting Crown revenues. Significant milestones of his government included the founding of Salvador as the capital, the arrival of the first Jesuits to catechize the indigenous people, and the structuring of the positions of ouvidor (judge), capitão-mor (military commander), and provedor-mor (chief treasurer). His successors, Duarte da Costa and Mem de Sá, faced challenges such as the French invasion in Rio de Janeiro, conflicts with indigenous peoples, and debates about slavery. The implementation of the General Government consolidated administrative centralization, reinforced the Portuguese presence, and established the foundations for the colony's economic and territorial expansion.
2.2 Sugar Economy and Society
The sugar economy became the main economic activity in colonial Brazil, fostering the formation of large monoculture properties — the latifundia — which operated under the slave system. Initially, the labor force was indigenous, but the decline of this population and cultural resistance led to a significant increase in the use of African slaves. Sugar production, subject to the monopoly and taxation of the Portuguese metropolis, consolidated the economic structure based on large estates (plantations) and monoculture.
The establishment of a sugar mill was a complex and expensive undertaking. It required investments in sugarcane plantations, processing equipment, buildings, slaves, cattle, and transportation infrastructure, in addition to the main house. The sugar production process involved multiple stages, from extracting the juice from the cane to its purification and refining. Water-powered mills, known as royal mills, stood out for their greater capacity and productivity. Due to high operational costs, the sugar industry was dominated by large landowners who had the necessary resources for such investments, consolidating a society marked by the dichotomy between masters and slaves.
2.3 Entradas and Bandeiras
The bandeiras were expeditions carried out in colonial Brazil during the 17th century, mainly by paulistas — inhabitants of the Captaincy of São Vicente, present-day São Paulo. Led by bandeirantes such as Manuel Preto and Antônio Raposo Tavares, these expeditions ventured into the interior of the continent in search of indigenous people for enslavement and precious metals like gold and silver. Composed of a diverse contingent, the bandeiras brought together whites, mamelucos (descendants of indigenous people and Europeans), and a large number of already captive or allied indigenous people. The bandeira of 1629, for example, included 69 whites, 900 mamelucos, and 2,000 indigenous people.
These expeditions had a significant impact on Portuguese territorial expansion, surpassing the limits established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The bandeiras traversed regions such as Minas Gerais, Goiás, and Mato Grosso, as well as attacking Guarani Indian villages organized by Spanish Jesuits, especially in the Guaíra region in western Paraná. The search for precious metals was a central motivation, and in 1695, bandeirantes like Borba Gato discovered the first significant gold deposits in the Rio das Velhas, near the present-day cities of Sabará and Caeté in Minas Gerais.
The discovery of gold by the bandeirantes triggered important economic and social transformations in colonial Brazil. The gold cycle promoted the settlement of the interior, shifted the economic axis from the Northeast to the Center-South, and contributed to the emergence of new cities and captaincies. Furthermore, it generated an immigration rush from Portugal to Brazil and influenced economic relations between Portugal and England, as Brazilian gold helped balance the Portuguese trade balance. However, these expeditions also resulted in devastating consequences for indigenous populations, including enslavement, forced displacement, and violence.
3. Crisis of the Colonial System and Paths to Independence
The last decades of the 18th century were marked by significant changes that shook the colonial system in Brazil. The discovery of gold and diamonds altered the economic dynamics, but also led to the depletion of mines and increased fiscal pressure on the population. Simultaneously, Enlightenment influences and independence movements in other colonies — such as the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789 — fueled discontent and the desire for autonomy among Brazilian colonists. The administration of the Marquis of Pombal attempted to reinforce metropolitan control, but his measures inadvertently contributed to the crisis of the colonial system.
In Brazil, the depletion of mineral wealth and the intensification of fiscal exploitation fomented resistance movements, such as the Inconfidência Mineira in 1789 and the Bahian Conspiracy in 1798. These uprisings reflected the growing yearning for independence and dissatisfaction with Portuguese colonial exploitation. These factors combined to pave the way that would lead to Brazil's Independence in 1822, marking the end of colonial rule and the beginning of a new era in Brazilian history.
Conclusion
The history of colonial Brazil is characterized by cycles of exploitation, consolidation, and transformation. From the extraction of brazilwood to the sugar economy and mineral exploitation, the colonial period was crucial in shaping the national identity. The tensions between metropolis and colony, shaped by mercantilism and global changes, culminated in the aspiration for independence and the emergence of a sovereign nation.
References
- BOXER, C. R. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002.
- BUENO, Eduardo. Brazil: A History: Five Centuries of a Country Under Construction. Rio de Janeiro: Leya, 2012.
- FAUSTO, B. History of Brazil. 2nd ed. São Paulo: Edusp, 1995.
- FERLINI, Vera Lúcia Amaral. The Sugar Civilization (16th to 18th centuries). São Paulo: Brasiliense, 9th ed., 1994.
- FREYRE, G. The Masters and the Slaves. São Paulo: Global, 2003.
- PRADO JUNIOR, Caio. Formation of Contemporary Brazil: Colony. São Paulo: Brasiliense, 9th ed., 1969.
- VAINFAS, R. (org.). Dictionary of Colonial Brazil: 1500-1808. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2001.