"Their appearance is dark, somewhat reddish, with good faces and good noses, well-shaped. They go about naked, without any covering. They don't care about covering or showing their shame any more than they do about showing their faces."— Letter from Pero Vaz de Caminha to the King – 1500
Hello, dear reader! Today we're embarking on a journey through time to learn more about the indigenous nations that inhabited the Brazilian coast before the arrival of Europeans. We'll explore their cultures, relationships, and the impact that colonization had on these peoples. Ready? Then let's go! Analyzing indigenous society and customs is not an easy task. Dealing with peoples of cultures very different from our own, about whom strong prejudices existed and still exist, requires care. This is reflected, to a greater or lesser degree, in the accounts written by chroniclers, travelers, and priests, especially Jesuits.
The Arrival of the Tupi-Guarani on the Coast
When Pedro Álvares Cabral arrived on the Brazilian coast in 1500, it is estimated that the territory was home to about 3.5 million inhabitants. The Tupinambá and the Tupiniquim, peoples belonging to the Tupi-Guarani group, had secured control of the coast, expelling other tribes they called "Tapuia" — a term meaning "barbarians". Before Tupi dominance, the Brazilian coast was inhabited by the Tapuias, considered the oldest indigenous group to occupy the region. They extended from the Río de la Plata to the Amazon River, before being displaced to the interior.
The expansion of the Tupi-Guarani peoples along the coast was motivated by the search for the "Land Without Evil" — a mythical place free of diseases, hunger, and wars. This belief drove them to spread along the coast, significantly shaping the pre-colonial history of Brazil.
Relations between native peoples were marked by frequent territorial conflicts. The Tapuias, during their previous dominance, had become enemies of various indigenous groups in wars to defend the coast. With the arrival of the Tupinaés and, later, the Tupinambás, the Tapuias were forced to retreat further inland. Wars between Tupinaés and Tapuias intensified in the hinterland, while the Tupinambás continued their coastal expansion.
The southeast coast, in turn, was dominated by the Tamoios, descendants of the Tupinambá, who controlled the region from the Rio do Cabo de São Tomé to Angra dos Reis. Known for constantly warring with neighboring peoples and without close allies, the Tamoios were eventually expelled to the hinterland during the 16th century, due to Portuguese colonization and French invasion in the region.
Tupi Society and Its Cultural Practices
The Tupi-Guarani peoples, one of the main indigenous groups of pre-colonial Brazil, maintained an intimate relationship with the land and nature. They practiced agriculture using the slash-and-burn technique — a method later incorporated by European colonizers. They cultivated beans, corn, squash, and especially cassava, whose flour became a staple food during the colonial period. The economy was based on subsistence, with each village producing what was necessary for its needs. Despite the scarce exchange of food between communities, they maintained contacts for the exchange of women and prestige goods, such as toucan feathers and stones for adornments.
Socially, the Tupi-Guarani valued the principle of political equality. The power of the chief, although it could be hereditary, was generally exercised by members who demonstrated military competence, social prestige, and personal charisma. The pajé, or shaman, played a crucial role as a religious authority and intermediary between the tribe and the spiritual world. Even without written laws, they followed customs and oral traditions that governed community life.
War was a central element in Tupi-Guarani society, with the capture of enemies playing an important ritualistic role. They performed rites of passage and ceremonies in which prisoners could be sacrificed — practices linked to obtaining prestige and renewing social bonds. The arrival of the Portuguese was perceived in a complex way: Europeans, especially Jesuit priests, were associated with great pajés, important figures who traveled between villages, healing and prophesying. This ambivalence — of respect, fear, and distrust — marked the first interactions and contributed to the complexity of relations between the Tupi-Guarani and the colonizers.
Alliances and Conflicts with the Colonizers
Although the Tupinambás initially expelled their enemies and maintained control over the conquered territories, they could not avoid internal conflicts that culminated in a civil war. Divergences within their own people resulted in several dissensions, leading to the formation of villages between the São Francisco and Real rivers during the period of Portuguese colonization. These new communities declared themselves enemies of the established villages from the Real River to the captaincy of Bahia de Todos os Santos. The confrontations between these villages were as brutal as previous conflicts with external enemies, involving deaths, cannibalism, and enslavement of the defeated.
The lack of unity among indigenous nations and intertribal conflicts were factors that the Portuguese skillfully exploited. They established strategic alliances with certain groups to combat others — for example, in the early days of the Vila de São Paulo de Piratininga, the support of local Tupis was crucial to resist attacks from the Tamoios. This does not mean, however, that indigenous peoples did not offer resistance. Many fought bravely against enslavement and the usurpation of their lands, but faced not only the military superiority of Europeans but also diseases brought by the colonizers, against which they had no immunity.
In 1562, faced with constant conflicts with some indigenous groups, Governor-General Mem de Sá made a drastic decision: he ordered that "all be enslaved, without exception". It is estimated that this order affected about 75,000 indigenous people. Such an extreme measure reflected the tension and violence that permeated relations between colonizers and native peoples, especially those who resisted occupation and enslavement. Despite the adversities, some indigenous groups opted for isolation, moving to more remote regions in an attempt to preserve their culture and way of life. This silent resistance allowed many indigenous traditions to survive over the centuries.
References
- CUNHA, Manuela Carneiro da. História dos índios no Brasil. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1992.
- FERNANDES, Florestan. Organização social dos Tupinambá. 2ª ed. São Paulo: Difusão Europeia do Livro, 1963.
- GUIDON, N. As ocupações pré-históricas do Brasil (excetuando a Amazônia). In: História dos Índios no Brasil. 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1998.
- HOLANDA, Sérgio Buarque. História geral da civilização brasileira. Rio de Janeiro: Difel, 1976.