Socrates (469-399 BCE) is considered the father of Western philosophy, despite his Greek predecessors. His influence is primarily due to his relationship with Plato, whose works preserved and compared Socratic teachings. Socrates' philosophical attitude, characterized by impartial reflection, moral courage, and dedication to teaching, solidified his reputation. His serenity in facing death is a striking example of these qualities.
As an independent thinker who did not charge for his teachings, Socrates attracted brilliant and committed minds. His philosophy of clarity gained widespread respect, directly influencing Plato and Aristotle, whose ideas spread widely.
During the Middle Ages, with Avicenna's translation of Aristotle's works, the Socrates-Plato-Aristotle triad gained prominence in the Church. The Renaissance rediscovered these thinkers, whose rational and practical ideas shaped Western institutions. Socrates' influence persists in modern philosophy, with his pursuit of clarity in thought and language, and his preference for logical arguments based on experience, which laid the foundation for the inductive method.
The Socratic method of investigation, known as "ελενκο" (elenchus) or refutation, is central to his philosophical and educational innovation. This dialogue of questions and answers aims to identify logical inconsistencies, leading to the rejection of unfounded theses. This dialogical approach remains relevant for philosophers and educators, being fundamental for consensus in philosophical thinking and educational practice. Therefore, knowledge of Socratic thought is essential in the formation of educators, serving as a solid philosophical foundation.
1. Biography
Little is known about Socrates' childhood, but it is believed that he received a traditional Athenian education, given his later profound knowledge. Born in Athens, he was the son of sculptor Sophroniscus and midwife Phaenarete. In his youth, he studied with Archelaus, taking interest in Anaxagoras' scientific theories. However, he eventually abandoned investigations of the physical world to dedicate himself to the study of moral and ethical development.
During the Peloponnesian War, Socrates served as a hoplite soldier, participating in various military campaigns and demonstrating bravery in the battles of Potidaea, Delium, and Amphipolis. At Potidaea, it is believed that he saved the life of the Athenian general Alcibiades. After the war, he briefly became involved in Athens' political turmoil but soon withdrew from public life. Besides his philosophical activity, Socrates occasionally worked as a stonecutter and sculptor, completing works such as "Hermes" and "The Three Graces". He married Xanthippe, with whom he had three children. Reports suggest that Xanthippe resented the fact that Socrates did not charge for his teachings.
Known for his simple lifestyle and for spending much of his time discussing ideas in the agoras and public places of Athens, Socrates devoted himself entirely to philosophy after inheriting a modest fortune from his father. He left no written works; all knowledge of his ideas comes from the accounts of his disciples, especially Plato — who portrays him as the central character in many of his dialogues — and Xenophon, who offers complementary perspectives on his life and teachings.
Notable Disciples
- Plato: Socrates' most famous disciple, founded the Academy of Athens and recorded many of his master's dialogues and teachings.
- Xenophon: Historian and philosopher who documented aspects of Socrates' life and philosophy.
- Antisthenes: Founder of the Cynic school, inspired by Socratic teachings on virtue and self-sufficiency.
- Aristippus of Cyrene: Founder of the Cyrenaic school, which advocated hedonism as an ethical principle.
- Alcibiades: Athenian military commander and politician, an admirer of Socrates despite his controversial life.
Main Ideas and Philosophical Method
- Socratic Method (Dialectics): Socrates developed a teaching method based on questions and answers, stimulating critical thinking and leading his interlocutors to deeply examine their own beliefs. This method aimed to reveal inconsistencies and promote the search for true knowledge.
- Ethics of Knowledge: He believed that virtue is intrinsically linked to knowledge and that no one commits evil deliberately; wrong actions result from ignorance. Therefore, by acquiring knowledge, people would naturally act correctly.
- Critique of the Sophists: Unlike the sophists, who taught rhetoric aimed at personal success, Socrates sought absolute truth and the common good, prioritizing ethics and morality over persuasion and relativism.
In 399 BCE, Socrates was accused of corrupting Athenian youth and not believing in the city's gods, introducing new deities. Brought to trial, he was condemned to death by hemlock poisoning. His final days are narrated in Plato's dialogues, such as "Apology," "Crito," and "Phaedo," where Socrates demonstrates serenity and firmness in his principles, accepting the sentence without trying to flee Athens.
2. The Socratic Dialectical Method
Socrates dedicated much of his life to developing a philosophical method that sought truth through dialogue and reflection. Known as the dialectical method or Socratic method, this approach involved deep and systematic questioning, encouraging his interlocutors to examine and redefine their own beliefs and ideas.
Instead of providing direct answers, Socrates would indicate the path and help the interlocutor traverse it, but the journey itself depended on the individual's own reasoning. As the saying goes, he "taught how to fish, rather than giving the fish." This method is divided into two moments: irony and maieutics.
Socratic irony is not mere mockery or disrespect, although some passages in the dialogues, such as in Plato's Apology of Socrates, might suggest this. In fact, it is a strategy of refutation that weakens prejudices and unfounded opinions, destabilizing the interlocutor's superficial certainties. Maieutics, or the "birth of ideas," occurs when the interlocutor recognizes the contradictions in their beliefs and realizes that their opinions are not absolute truths, but limited perceptions. This recognition allows them to reach more universal and solid concepts, approaching truth.
Main Characteristics:
- Systematic Questioning: Socrates used strategic questions to guide discussion. Instead of providing ready-made answers, he stimulated critical thinking, leading his interlocutors to discover inconsistencies in their own arguments.
- Socratic Irony: By feigning ignorance about the subject at hand, Socrates adopted a humble stance. This encouraged his interlocutors to explain their viewpoints in detail, revealing flaws and promoting deeper understanding.
- Search for Precise Definition: A crucial stage of the method was establishing clear definitions of discussed concepts. Socrates believed that understanding the essence of an idea was fundamental to true knowledge.
- Refutation (Elenchus): Through dialogue, Socrates frequently led his interlocutors to logical contradiction, demonstrating that their initial assumptions were inadequate or incomplete.
Objectives of the Method:
- Self-knowledge: Socrates emphasized the importance of "knowing oneself." The dialectical method served as a tool for introspection and personal development.
- Connection between Knowledge and Virtue: He believed that true knowledge led to virtue and, consequently, to happiness. For Socrates, no one acts wrongly deliberately; wrong actions are the result of ignorance.
- Promotion of Critical Thinking: By challenging preconceived ideas, the method encouraged people not to accept information without questioning, fostering a culture of analysis and logical reasoning.
The dialectical method exerted a lasting influence on Western philosophy. Plato, his most famous disciple, adopted and expanded this approach in his writings and at the Academy of Athens. Aristotle was also influenced by this methodology, refining it in his own works. In modern education, the Socratic method is employed to develop critical thinking skills, allowing students to deeply explore subjects and actively construct knowledge.
Virtue and Knowledge
Socrates postulated that virtue is equivalent to knowledge, maintaining that no one acts wrongly voluntarily; errors are a consequence of ignorance. This view implies that, by acquiring knowledge, the individual will naturally adopt virtuous behaviors.
The relationship between virtue and knowledge can be illustrated by the analogy with artistic skills. For example, the virtue of the painter lies in understanding the principles of composition, color, and technique, as well as the ability to apply them to create a work of art. In this context, "virtue" does not refer to a moral attribute, but to a specific type of knowledge that involves executing a creative task and realizing an artistic vision. These two dimensions are inseparable: seeing the good and doing the good are necessary and sufficient for knowledge of the good. Knowing the purpose and good for human beings and acting according to this purpose constitute a single reality. Thus, "no one errs voluntarily" — no one chooses to do what they know is not good. When someone acts incorrectly, this results from ignorance, an intellectual error, not a moral failure. The person believes they are acting correctly; if they knew they were not, they would not do it.
Therefore, the only way to help others is to promote knowledge of what is good for them. This knowledge is achieved through dialectics, a method of investigating "the true nature of things."
3. Socratic Legacy and Principles
Unlike other philosophers who focused on metaphysical questions, Socrates believed that philosophy should produce practical results to improve individual and collective well-being. His main focus was understanding the human being, dedicating himself to ethics and politics, and seeking to understand how to live virtuously and contribute positively to society.
Socrates established an ethical system grounded in human reason, moving away from theological guidelines imposed by priests and rulers. He argued that knowledge should be free and not used for political or material gains. For Socrates, knowledge was a universal right, belonging to all humanity, not a privilege of the few. He considered denying access to knowledge to anyone would be a fundamental violation of human rights. He criticized the sophists' practice of charging for their teachings, arguing that profiting from knowledge was ethically questionable. This detachment from material success and his valuation of knowledge as moral virtue attracted many disciples. In his dialogues, Socrates sought to understand and achieve virtue (arete, in Greek) through a dialectical method that critically questioned widely accepted doctrines. He saw knowledge, virtue, and dialogue as essential pillars for human and social development.
For Socrates, supreme good is happiness, and all actions are motivated by the desire to achieve it. He affirmed that knowledge, virtue, and wisdom are intrinsically linked, as an individual chooses actions based on what they believe will bring them greater happiness. The more knowledge one possesses, the greater their capacity to act virtuously and understand what truly brings happiness. One cannot consider someone truly wise without being virtuous, and virtuous conduct is rewarding in itself, being essential to achieve true happiness.
In the political field, Socrates supported neither tyranny nor democracy in its contemporary form. He believed that the best form of government would be led by an individual endowed with ability, knowledge, and virtue. For him, the moral and intellectual competence of the ruler was essential for society's well-being, surpassing systems based solely on power or majority will.
Finally, Socrates emphasized the dialectical relationship between philosophy and pedagogy, highlighting the role of dialogue as an essential element for both areas. He saw philosophers and educators as agents of dialogue, contributing to the advancement of philosophical thought and educational practices. This vision emphasizes the importance of critical questioning and exchange of ideas in the process of learning and intellectual development.
These principles reflect the essence of Socratic thought and offer profound insights for contemporary educational practice. By incorporating them, educators can promote a learning environment based on dialogue, critical reflection, and moral development, honoring Socrates' lasting legacy.
3. Conclusion
Socrates dedicated his life to philosophical exploration and the stimulation of critical thinking. His innovative approach and unwavering commitment to truth not only shaped Greek philosophy but also established foundations that continue to influence contemporary thought. His legacy endures as a symbol of the relentless pursuit of knowledge and virtue. Socrates' influence on philosophy is profound and lasting. His dialectical method established the foundations for Western philosophy and inspired generations of thinkers to question and seek truth. His emphasis on ethics, morality, and self-knowledge remains relevant, encouraging reflection on human nature and society. Socrates is often seen as a model of intellectual integrity and commitment to ethical principles, serving as inspiration for philosophers, educators, and individuals in search of a meaningful life.
References
- DUHOT, Jean-Jöel. Sócrates ou o despertar da consciência. São Paulo: Loyola, 2004.
- GOTTLIEB, Anthony. Socrates. Routledge, 1999.
- MORRISON, Donald R. Sócrates.Editora Ideias e Letras. 2016.
- XENOFONTE. Ditos e feitos memoráveis de Sócrates. Tradução: Líbero Rangelde Andrade. São Paulo: Abril, 1972. Coleção Os Pensadores